• CABANEL, Alexandre (1823-89).  French painter. Leading portrait painter of his day.  Most famous painting "Death of Moses" 1852.  Famous pupils - Besnard, Bastien-Lepage, and Benjamin Constant.
• CABANIS, Pierre Jean Georges (1757-1808).  French physician.  Professor of medicine in Paris in 1799.  Attended Mirabeau during his final illness then wrote a book about it.  Author of many books on physiology.  A member of the Five Hundred and of the Senate.  He proposed the motion leading to the abolition of the Directory.  Objected to the policy of Bonaparte.
• CABARRUS, Francois (1752 - 1810).  French adventurer.  A financier at the Spanish court under Charles III. He was charged with embezzlement under Charles IV.  He was made minister of finance when Joseph Bonaparte, brother of Napoleon came to the throne.
• CABET, Etienne (1788-1856).  French communist.  Took part in the revolution of 1830 His revolutionary speeches led to exile and he fled to England. Here he was converted to communism by Robert Owen.  On his return to France he published Voyage en Icarie, 1840.  His followers established a commune in Texas with Cabet as director in 1848. After moving to Illinois, Cabet was excluded from the directorship in 1856.  He died soon after.
• CABLE, George Washington (1844-1925).  American novelist.  He became prominent through his Old Creole Days 1879.His later novels included The Grandissimes, a study of French-American life in Louisiana, 1880, Bonaventure, 1888, Gideon's Band, 1914, and the Flower of the Chapdelaines, 1919.
• CABOT, John (c.1450-98).  Italian navigator.  In 1496 King Henry VII of England, authorised him to seek out unknown lands.  On 1497 he reached North America at Cape Breton Island. Henry rewarded him with a pension. In 1498 he reached Greenland naming it Labrador.  Later the name was given to the present coast of Canada in the belief that it was part of Greenland.  On June 11 his crews mutinied and Cabot was forced to turn south  He passed Newfoundland and Nova Scotia reaching Bristol in the autumn.  He died soon afterwards.
• CABOT, Sebastian (c.1474-1557).  English navigator.  He sailed with his father John to Cape Breton Island in 1497.  In 1512 made maps of Gascony and Guienne for Henry VIII.Commanded a Spanish expedition to South America but was imprisoned on his return as the voyage was unprofitable.  Returned to England in 1547 as adviser in marine affairs to the English Government and later as governor of the Merchant Adventurers.   Organised 3 voyages for the company to Russia in 1553, 1555, and 1556.
• CABRERA,  Ramon (1810-77).  Spanish soldier. Joined the Carlists on the outbreak of the Civil War in 1833.  His success as a leader brought victory to the Carlists in 1839 and he was made Count of Morella by Don Carlos. The following year brought disaster and he was driven to France, and subsequently died in England.
• CADBURY.  Name of a distinguished Quaker family.  Richard Tapper Cadbury settled in Birmingham in 1794 and his son John began the business which has become world famous.  His sons founded the industrial and residential town of Bournville in 1879 and later the firm amalgamated with J.S. Fry & Son of Bristol.
• CADE, Jack (d.1450).  British rebel.  He and his followers defeated the king's troops at Sevenoaks in 1450. He then marched his band to London and entered the city.  The mayor closed London Bridge.  His battle for re-entry was unsuccessful.  Archbishop Kemp persuaded the rebels to return home  but Cade refused to acknowledge defeat, and fell fighting at Heathfield, Sussex.
• CADELL, Francis (1822-79).  Australian pioneer. Pioneer in Australian navigation.  Visited Australia in 1848.  He travelled 1,300 miles up the Murray river in 1853 and five years later penetrated 2,000 miles into the heart of New South Wales.  He was murdered by his crew off South Australi
• CADELL, Robert (1788-1849).  Scottish publisher.  Was a partner of Archibald Constable, the Edinburgh publisher of Scott's works. When the firm failed in 1826 he became Scott's sole publisher and was his closest friend, paying many of Scott's creditors.
• CADOGAN, William Cadogan, 1st earl (1675-1726).  British soldier.  Entered the army and was present at Blenheim, Ramillies and other battles under Marlborough.  He was quarter-master-general, 1706-11, and it was chiefly due to him that the Jacobite rising of 1715 failed. He was made an earl in 1718, and Minister in Holland, 1714-19.
• CADOGAN, George Henry Cadogan, 5th earl (1840-1915).  British statesman.  Elected Conservative M.P. for Bath, 1873, succeeded to the peerage the same year.  Held several ministerial posts until 1902.
• CADORNA, Count Luigi (1850-1928).  Italian soldier.  Entered the Italian army in 1866, seeing active service in 1870.  Achieved the rank of lieutenant-general by 1905.  Became chief of the general staff in 1914.  Was appointed commander-in-chief in 1915, which post he held until 1917.  He then represented Italy on the military council at Versailles. Created a marshal in 1924.
• CADOUDAL, Georges (1771-1804).  French insurgent.  Angered by the attack on the Church by the French revolutionists he organised a counter revolution in Morbihan in 1793.  When it was suppressed he joined the army of La Vendee and after the defeat of Savenay, he carried on guerrilla warfare as leader of the Chouans, until forced to flee to England in 1800.  He returned to France in 1803 to plot against Bonaparte, but was captured and executed in Paris.
• CADWALADR.  Name of two Welsh princes.  Cadwaladr I (d. 664) reigned over the Britons in Wales in the 7th century and fought against Oswin of Northumbria and other English kings.He was regarded as a saint in Welsh legends.Cadwaladr II was a prince of the 12th century. Henry II reinstated him in 1157 after he had been a fugitive in Ireland. However he joined with the rest of Wales in opposing Henry's invasion in 1165.  He died in 1172.
• CAECINA.Name of an Etruscan family distinguished in Roman history.
• Antonius Caecina was exiled 45 B.C. for libelling Caesar, who later spared his life after the defeat of the Pompeians in 40 B.C.
• Antonius Caecina Severus fought with distinction against Augustus and Tiberius and received a triumph in A.D. 15
• Antonius Caecina Alienus, quaestor under Nero was a partisan of Gallia, against whom he later rebelled.  Invading Italy he defeated the army of Otho and enabled Vitelius to win the throne.  He was consul, September, 69, but later went over to Vespasian; turning against the latter also, he was killed at the instigation of Titus in 79.
• CAEDMON, Anglo-Saxon poet.  He was a labourer at St. Hilda's monastery at Whitby towards the end of the 7th century who was inspired by a vision to sing of the Creation.  He composed verses which Bede wrote in Latin form.
• CAESAR, Gaius Julius (102 - 44 B.C.)   He married Cornelia in 83 B.C.  He started his political career favourably in the absence of Sulla.  His refusal to divorce his wife at Sulla's command nearly cost him his life.   His family arranged for him to join the army in Asia in 81.  He won the civic crown for saving the life of a fellow soldier.  With Sulla's death in 78 Caesar gained experience in the law courts of Rome, then journeyed to the East to study under Apollonius Molo of Rhodes.  On being captured by pirates, then ransomed, he swore to get his revenge. He fitted out an expedition to capture the pirates and crucified them all.  After more military service he returned to politics in Rome.  In 68 he became quaestor in Spain, in 65 curule aedile, where his expenditure on the public games brought him great popularity.  Cornelia died in 68 so Caesar married Pompeia, General Pompey's cousin in 67.  His bid to secure popular support almost ruined him.  He borrowed a vast sum of money and secured the praetorship in  62, and was appointed governor of Farther Spain.   Here  he had the opportunity of developing his military talents and repaired his private fortune.   He was consul in 59.  He formed what is know as the First Triumvirate with Pompey and Crassus.  He faced bitter opposition, but introduced legislation to further his ends.  He obtained command of the province of Gaul  for 10 years, with extensive powers.  In that time he conquered Transalpine Gaul, and removed the fear of German invasion for many years to come. In 55 and 54 he invaded Britain without permanent military results, but it brought him great fame.  In 54 a revolt in Gaul was put down by 52 with a series of campaigns.  His enemies in Rome were alarmed by his successes, and set up Pompey as a rival.  The death of Crassus in an expedition against the Parthians in 53 left Pompey and Caesar as rivals. Pompey was elected sole consul for 52 and then received the province of Spain for 5 years.  Caesar knew when his period of imperium ended, as a private person,  his enemies in Rome would impeach him.   He demanded the consulship for 48 and wished to be absolved from certain aspects of the constitution.  Pompey and the Senate opposed this and demanded he disband his army and return to Rome.  Instead he crossed the Rubicon, the dividing line between the provinces and Italy proper, with his troops and a civil war began.  Pompey's troops deserted to Caesar by hundreds.  In 3 months he was master of Italy.  He was successful in Spain and Greece,  and was elected consul in 48.  In fleeing to Egypt,  Pompey was treacherously murdered.  Having followed him there, Caesar became entangled with the young queen Cleopatra, who bore him a son, Caesarion.  His time in Egypt gave his enemies time to rally. Caesar had victories in Asia Minor, Africa, and Spain, which ended the civil war.  He had been able to spend some time in Rome between campaigns putting affairs in order, and peace now left him free to continue his reforms. One of these was the reform of the calendar.  He was appointed Dictator, at first for 10 years, then in perpetuity in 45.  Mark Antony offered him a crown in 44 but Caesar refused it  Caesar showed clemency towards his former foes.  However the remnants of the senatorial party resented their loss of power.  Under the leadership of Cassius a conspiracy was formed against Caesar in the belief he was aiming at a tyranny.  His friend Marcus Brutus believed this. Caesar was surrounded and stabbed to death  in the Senate House on the Ides of March, 44 B.C.
• CAESAR, Sir Julius (1558-1636)  English judge.  The son of a naturalized Italian doctor, Caesare Adelmare, he anglicized his name.  He was called to the Bar in 1580, became judge of the admiralty court in 1584, a knight in 1603, chancellor of the exchequer 1606, and master of the rolls 1614.  One of the few incorruptible lawyers of his day, he was famous for his bounties.
• CAESARION (47-30 B.C.)  Egyptian king.  The son of Julius Caesar by Cleopatra, he was allowed to call himself Ptolemaeus, king of Egypt.  After the death of Cleopatra, he was put to death by Auigustus.
• CAFFARELLI, Gaetano Majorano Detto (1703-83). Italian singer.  He became a soprano singer and made his debut in Rome in 1724.  It was an immediate triumph.  He appeared in London in Handel's Faramondo in 1738.  He toured Europe for the next 30 years, eventually retiring with a bought dukedom and an enormous fortune.
• CAFFIERI, Jacques (1678-1755).  French metal-worker.  He was the creator of most of the magnificent metal work which adorned the palaces of Louis XV.  He was assisted by his son Phillippe (1714-77) and worked chiefly in bronze.
• CAGLIOSTRO, Count Allessandro (1743-95] Italian charlatan.  His real name was Guiseppi Balsamo.  He acquired a smattering of chemistry and medicine in the monastery of Caltagirone and gained some knowledge of the occult by traveling in Eastern Europe.  He fleeced fashionable society as being adept in medicine, alchemy, and  necromancy, and as a vendor of love philtres and elixers of youth.  In Paris he became involved in the affair of the Diamond necklace with Jean de la Motte and was imprisoned in the Bastille.  After his release he visited London, and on his return to Rome was condemned to death in 1789 for establishing an Egyptian order of Freemasonry.  The sentence was commuted to life in the fortress of San Leone, where he died.
• CAGNOLA, Luigi Marchese (1762-1833).    Italian architect.  He designed the triumphal arch in marble known as Arco della Pace in Milan, where there are other fine examples of his work , including the Arco della Sempione.
• CAIAPHAS, Jewish priest.  He presided over the court before which Jesus was brought prior to his crucifixion, as told in Matt. 26.  Caiaphas, who appears to have shared the office with Annas, was later removed by Nitellus.
• CAILLARD, Sir Vincent Henry Penalver (1856-1930).  British financier.  He entered the Royal Engineers in 1875.  He served on a frontier commission in the Balkans, 1879-80, and at the congress of Berlin, and was attached to the headquarters staff in the Egyptian campaign in 1882.  He was made president of the council of the Ottoman Public Debt in 1883, and financial reprsentative of Britain at Constantinople, where he remained until 1898, having  been knighted in 1896.
• CAILLETET, Louis Paul (1832-1913).  French scientist.  He became head of his father's ironworks, but is chiefly famous for his work on the liquefaction of gases.  He liquefied oxygen in 1877, and later hydrogen, nitrogen, and air.
• CAILLIE, Rene Auguste (1799-1838).  Frenchy traveller.  He went in 1825 to Sierra Leone and in April, 1827, disguised as an Arab, set out for Timbuktu, which he reached early in 1828.  He later continued his journey across the Sahara to Fez.  The first European to complete this difficult journey, he was awarded the prize offered by the French Geographical Society.
• CAIN. Biblical character. The first born son of Adam and Eve (Genesis 4; Hebrews 11; 1 John 3.), he killed his brother Abel in a fit of jealousy and fled, later founding a city called Enoch, after his son. A Jewish tradition states that he was accidentally killed by a descendent.
• CAINE, Sir Thomas Henry Hall (1853-1931)   British novelist.  He became a journalist, and was for some years a leader writer on the Liverpool Mercury. He visited Poland, 1891, and Canada, 1895, and did propaganda work during World War I. He was made a K.B.E. in 1918, and a Companion of Honour, 1922. As a novelist he wrote The Deemster, 1887; The Bondman, 1890; The Scapegoat, 1891; and The Manxman, 1894, books which through light on many Manx customs and superstitions. His later works included The Christian, 1897; The Eternal City, 1901; The Prodigal Son, 1904; and the Woman of Knockaloe, 1923. He also wrote Recollections of D. G. Rossetti, 1882; and The Drama of 365 Days, Scenes in the Great War, 1915.
• CAIRD, Alice Mona (d.1932).  British author. A daughter of John Alison, she was born in the Isle of Wight and married J.A.H. Caird in 1877.  Her works include Whom Nature Leadeth (over the pen-name of G. Noel Hatton), 1883; One That Wins, 1887; The Wing of Azraeil, 1889; The Morality of Marriage and Other Essays, 1897; The Stones of Sacrifice, 1915; and The Great Wave, 1931.
• CAIRD, Edward (1835-1908). British philosopher.  He became professor of moral philosophy at Glasgow in 1866.  He was made master of Balliol, 1893, resigning in 1907.  He died at Oxford.    In philosophy Caird was a critical idealist, who endeavoured to find in Kant the origin of the ideas later developed by Hegel.  His most important works are The Social Philosophy and Religion of Comte, 1885;  The Critical Philosophy of Immanuel Kant, 1889; and The Evolution of Religion, 1893.
• CAIRD, Sir James (1816-92). Scottish agriculturist.  He became a farmer and first attracted attention in 1849 with a treatise, High Farming as the Best Substitute for Protection.  This was of value to free trade and brought Caird to the notice of Peel, for whom he visited Ireland, publishing in 1850 The Plantation Scheme, a report of his visit.  Caird was Liberal M.P. for Dartmouth 1857-59, and Stirling, 1859-65.  He was knighted in 1882. 
• CAIRNS,  Hugh MacCalmont Cairns, 1st Earl (1819-85).  British lawyer.  He was called to the English bar in 1844, and was Conservative M.P. for Belfast 1852-66.  Solicitor-general in 1858, he was attorney general in 1866 and lord justice of appeal the same year.  Created Baron Cairns in 1867, he was lord chancellor in 1868, and again 1874-80 and made an earl in 1878. Cairns was responsible with Lord Selborne, for legislation simplifying the transfer of land. 
• CAIRNS, John Arthur robert (1874-1933).  British lawyer.  He was born in Belfast and became a minister of Presbyterian Church.  Leaving the church for legal career, in 1908 he was called to the bar  in London.  He was made prosecuting counsel to the post office, and in 1920 police magistrate, an appointment which he held until his death, when he was magistrate  at South Weston Police Court.  His books, of which the best-known is The Loom of  The Law, and his articles in the press, revealed his deepest sympathy with the classes with which he came into contact.
• CAIROLI, Benedetto (1825-89).  Italian statesman.  He was a volunteer in the rising against Austria  in 1848 and 1859.  He served at Palermo, in the Trentino, and at Mutino,  but supported the monarchy on unification of  Italy.  A leader of the left in the Chamber,  he was prime minister, 1878 and 1879-81.
• CAITHNESS, Earl of.  Scottish title borne by the family of Sinclair since 1455. Sir Henry Sinclair was accepted as Earl of Orkney in 1379, and his grandson William the 3rd earl and Chancellor of Scotland, was made Earl of Caithness in 1455.  Shortly afterwards, he gave up his earldom of Orkney to the king of Norway.  William, the 2nd earl, was killed at Flodden in 1513.  John, the 3rd earl met a similar end in trying to regain the Orkneys.  About 1670 George, the 6th earl, being heavily in debt, pledged his earldom and estates to Sir John Campbell, afterwards earl of Breadalbane, who in 1677 was made earl of Caithness; but in 1681, the title was recovered by  a Sinclair. James, the 12th earl (d.1823), was Postmaster General for Scotland and James the 14th was made in English Baron in 1866.  When the 15th earl died in 1889.  The title passed to James Augustus, a member of another branch of the Sinclairs. His second son Norman Sinclair, the 18th earl, took the name of Buchan i n 1911.
• CAIUS,  John  (1510-73).    English physician.  He was educated at Gonville Hall, Cambridge, and took a medical degree in 15 at Padua.  On his return he was appointed physician to Edward VI, Mary, and Elizabeth.  Caius refounded in1557 Gonville Hall at the College of Gonville and Caius, to which he left his estate.  The author of History of the University of Cambridge, 1568, and several medical and critical works, his name is pronounced Keys.
• CAJETAN, Giacomo (1469-1534).   Italian theologian.  He entered the Dominican order where he was elected general of his order in 1508, and in 1517 was made a cardinal and sent as apostolic legate to reconcile Luther to Rome.  On his return to Rome he became one of the chief counselors of Pope Clement VII.  Cajetan's chief literary works of his commentaries on the Bible, on the summa Theologica of S Thomas Aquinas, and on portions of Aristotle.
• CALAME, Alexandre (1810-64).  Swiss painter.  He became the acknowledged head of the Genovese school. His Waterfall of Handeck attracted attention at the Paris Salon in 1839, and his paintings of views in the Alps earned him considerable reputation.
• CALAMY, Edmund (1600-66)  English divine he was known as the leading Presbyterian in the controversy over episcopacy.  He opposed the execution of Charles I, and at the Restoration became a chaplain to Charles II, but declined the Bishopric of Lichfield.  Under the Act of Uniformity he was ejected from his living in 1662.
• CALAS, Jean (1698-1762).  French martyr.  He was accused of having murdered his eldest son, when in 1761 the son hanged himself. Calas was a Calvinist, and made a powerful defense on his own behalf, but the local parlement carried away by religious intolerance condemned him to be broken on the wheel.  The widow enlisted the sympathy of Voltaire, who induced the King to annul the sentence passed at Toulouse. Calas was declared innocent and his family awarded 30,000 livres.  The case was in its reversal of judgment a great triumph for Voltaire who roused public opinion by his book Sur la Tolerance. 
• CALCAR, John De (1499-c.1546).  Italian painter also known as Jan van Calcker.  He studied under Titian in Venice and so imitated his master and Raphael that his works have been frequently mistaken for theirs.  His best-known painting is a nativity, noted for novelty of lighting.
• CALDARA,  Polidoro (c. 1495-1543).  Italian painter.  He was engaged by Raphael to help in decorating the loggias of the Vatican.  Fleeing from Rome when the Spaniards sacked the city in 1527, he set up school at Naples, and later he moved to Messina, where he painted his masterpiece Christ Bearing his Cross.   He was murdered by his servant.
• CALDECOTT, Randolph (1846-86)  English artist.  He was originally a Bank clerk, his art being chiefly self taught.  He came to London in 1872, and began to draw a for The Graphic, Punch, and other periodicals.  As an illustrator he achieved a major success with Washington Irving's Old Christmas, 1875, and Bracebridge Hall, 1876.  His series of colored books for children revealed his real metier.  Beginning in 1878 with John Gilpin and the House that Jack Built, he produced two every Christmas until his death.  He was a member of the Royal Institute of Painters in Water Colors, and exhibited several bas-reliefs at Burlington House.
• CALDER, Sir Robert (1745-1818).  British sailor.  He entered the Navy in 1759.  He served under Sir John Jervis at the Battle of Cape St. Vincent in 1796, and was knighted in 1797, and the next year was created a baronet.  As a vice Admiral, he led the squadron  that blockaded the enemy  port of Ferrol in 1804, but failed to prevent Villeneuve's fleet from slipping past him into the port.   Court martialled, he was severely reprimanded.
• CALDERON, Philip Hermogenes (1833-98)  British painter.  He came to London from France in 1845.  He first exhibited at the Royal Academy in 1853.   Earning a considerable reputation as a painter of religious subjects he was elected A.R.A. in 1864,R.A. in 1867, and make keeper of the Academy in 1887.  His picture St. Elizabeth of Hungary, 1891, when hung in the Tate Gallery, was renamed Renunciation.
• CALDERON, Count of Oliva, Rodrigo, (d.1621).  Spanish adventurer.   The son of a military commander, he was born in Antwerp.  His unscrupulous nature and diplomatic gifts soon gained him the post of secretary to the duke of Lerma, a position which increased in power and importance when Philip III became king of Spain in 1598.  Foremost among the sycophants  at the court, he won wealth and fortune.   His behavior, however, offended the Queen and the populace and, arrested in 1620 on a charge of murder, he was executed.
• CALDERON, Serafin Esterbanez (1801-67) Spanish Roger. He was appointed Professor of poetry in 1822 in Granada University. He quickly made a reputation in Madrid, whither he removed in 1830, for his lively sketches of Andalusian scenes and customs, in 1847 as Escenas andaluzos. His other literary works include a volume of poems, 1830, a novel - Cristianos y Moriscos, 1858 and an account of the expeditions and adventurous of the Spanish in Africa. His magnificent library was purchased by the government after his death.
• CALDERON, Serafin Estebanez (1801-67). Spanish writer. He was appointed professor of poetry in 1822 in Granada University. He quickly made a reputation in Madrid, whither he removed in 1830, for his lively sketches of Andalusian scenes published in 1847 as Escenas andaluzas. His other literary works include a volume of poems, a novel - Cristianos y Moriscos, 1838- and an account of of the expeditions and adventures of the Spanish in Africa. His magnificent library was purchased by the government after his death.
• CALDERON DE LA BARCA, Pedro (1600-81). Spanish dramatist. He studied for six years at the University of Salamanca. He published the first volume of his plays in 1636, and in 1637 he was made a knight of the order of Santiago by Philip IV. He took part in the Catalonian campaign of 1640, but left the Army in 1642, and in 1650 join the Order of S. Francis. Ordained a priest in 1651, in 1653 he became Prebendary of Toledo and in 1663 chaplain to Philip IV. On Phillip's death in 1665 his successor continued the Royal patronage of the dramatist who remained productive up to the end of his life, writing his last play in his 81st year.
• CALDERWOOD, David (1575-1650) Scottish divine. He was ordained minister in 1604 For signing a protest against the establishment of episcopacy in 1617 he was imprisoned and afterwards exiled. He went to Holland, where, in 1623 he published hisAltare Damascenum, a spirited and learned defence of Presbyterianism. Returning to Scotland he received another ministry in 1640, and in 1643 helped to draw up the Directory for Public Worship. His History of the Kirk of Scotland was first published 1842-49.
• CALDERWOOD, Henry (1830-97). Scottish philosopher. He was made Minister of a Presbyterian Church in Glasgow in 1856, and thereafter held academic appointments in Glasgow and Edinburgh universities until his death. In philosophy he was a realist, but in his well known Philosophy of the Infinite, 1854, he opposed the attitude of Hamilton and mentioned that Faith implied a certain knowledge of the infinite, and that the mind's activity goes deeper than mere sensory data. His other works include a Handbook of Moral Philosophy, 1872, and a life of David Hume, 1898.
• CALDICOTT, Alfred James (1842-97). English composer. He studied at Leipzig and for 17 years was organist at St. Stephen's, Worcester. Made professor at the Royal College of Music in 1882 he was from 1892 until his death director of the London College of Music. His compositions include songs and part songs, two operettas and two cantatas, of which the best known was The Widow of Nain.
• CALEB. Biblical character. The son of Jephunneh, of the tribe of Judah, was sent by Moses with Joshua to spy out the promised land. He received Hebron as his inheritance. (Num. 13 and 14; Deut. 1; and Josh. 14).